What contribution did Kepler, Descartes, and Newton make to the understanding of the universe?

The contribution of Kepler, Descartes, and Newton to the understanding of the universe is fundamentally linked to their work in mathematics and natural philosophy, which is often recognized today as physics. Kepler is known for his laws of planetary motion, which describe how planets orbit in elliptical paths. Descartes contributed to the development of a mechanical philosophy of nature and introduced a new approach to understanding the cosmos through a coordinate system that would later become foundational in mathematics. Newton synthesized these ideas and formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation, providing a comprehensive framework that explained not only how objects move on Earth but also how celestial bodies interact.

This approach laid the groundwork for classical mechanics, which became central to the scientific revolution and provided the tools necessary to mathematically model physical phenomena. While the other options involve concepts that have emerged in more recent discussions of astrophysics (such as dark matter, thermodynamics, and the expansion of the universe), the combined insights of Kepler, Descartes, and Newton were pivotal in transitioning from philosophical speculation about the universe to a rigorous, mathematical understanding of physical laws.